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Visual arts produced during the European Renaissance

Renaissance art (1350 - 1620 AD^[ane]) is the painting, sculpture, and decorative arts of the period of European history known every bit the Renaissance, which emerged every bit a distinct style in Italy in about Advertisement 1400, in parallel with developments which occurred in philosophy, literature, music, science, and engineering. Renaissance fine art took equally its foundation the art of Classical antiquity, perceived as the noblest of ancient traditions, but transformed that tradition by arresting contempo developments in the art of Northern Europe and past applying contemporary scientific noesis. Along with Renaissance humanist philosophy, information technology spread throughout Europe, affecting both artists and their patrons with the development of new techniques and new artistic sensibilities. For art historians, Renaissance art marks the transition of Europe from the medieval flow to the Early Mod age.

The body of fine art, painting, sculpture, architecture, music, and literature identified as "Renaissance art" was primarily produced during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries in Europe under the combined influences of an increased sensation of nature, a revival of classical learning, and a more individualistic view of man. Scholars no longer believe that the Renaissance marked an precipitous pause with medieval values, as is suggested past the French give-and-take renaissance, literally significant "rebirth". Rather, historical sources suggest that interest in nature, humanistic learning, and individualism were already present in the late medieval period and became dominant in 15th- and 16th-century Italy, concurrently with social and economic changes such as the secularization of daily life, the rise of a rational money-credit economic system, and profoundly increased social mobility. In many parts of Europe, Early Renaissance art was created in parallel with Late Medieval art.

Origins [edit]

Many influences on the evolution of Renaissance men and women in the early 15th century accept been credited with the emergence of Renaissance art; they are the same every bit those that affected philosophy, literature, compages, theology, science, government and other aspects of social club. The following listing presents a summary of changes to social and cultural conditions which have been identified as factors which contributed to the development of Renaissance art. Each is dealt with more than fully in the main articles cited higher up. The scholars of Renaissance period focused on nowadays life and ways to make human life evolve and improve in its entirety. They did non pay much attending to medieval philosophy or religion. During this period, scholars and humanists like Erasmus, Dante and Petrarch criticized superstitious beliefs and also questioned them. ^[2] The concept of pedagogy also widened its spectrum and focused more than on creating 'an ideal man' who would have a fair understanding of arts, music, poesy and literature and would have the power to capeesh these aspects of life. During this menstruum, at that place emerged a scientific outlook which helped people question the needless rituals of the church.

Classical texts, lost to European scholars for centuries, became available. These included documents of philosophy, prose, poetry, drama, science, a thesis on the arts, and early Christian theology.
Europe gained admission to avant-garde mathematics, which had its provenance in the works of Islamic scholars.
The advent of movable type printing in the 15th century meant that ideas could be disseminated hands, and an increasing number of books were written for a broader public.
The institution of the Medici Banking concern and the subsequent trade it generated brought unprecedented wealth to a unmarried Italian city, Florence.
Cosimo de' Medici ready a new standard for patronage of the arts, not associated with the church or monarchy.
Humanist philosophy meant that man's relationship with humanity, the universe and God was no longer the exclusive province of the church.
A revived interest in the Classics brought about the first archaeological study of Roman remains by the architect Brunelleschi and sculptor Donatello. The revival of a style of compages based on classical precedents inspired a corresponding classicism in painting and sculpture, which manifested itself equally early on as the 1420s in the paintings of Masaccio and Uccello.
The improvement of oil paint and developments in oil-painting technique past Belgian artists such as Robert Campin, January van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden and Hugo van der Goes led to its adoption in Italy from about 1475 and had ultimately lasting effects on painting practices worldwide.
The serendipitous presence inside the region of Florence in the early on 15th century of certain individuals of artistic genius, most notably Masaccio, Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Piero della Francesca, Donatello and Michelozzo formed an ethos out of which sprang the keen masters of the High Renaissance, likewise as supporting and encouraging many bottom artists to achieve work of extraordinary quality.^[3]
A like heritage of artistic achievement occurred in Venice through the talented Bellini family, their influential in-law Mantegna, Giorgione, Titian and Tintoretto.^[3] ^[iv] ^[5]
The publication of ii treatises by Leone Battista Alberti, De pictura ("On Painting") in 1435 and De re aedificatoria ("X Books on Architecture") in 1452.

History [edit]

Proto-Renaissance in Italy, 1280–1400 [edit]

In Italy in the belatedly 13th and early 14th centuries, the sculpture of Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni Pisano, working at Pisa, Siena and Pistoia shows markedly classicising tendencies, probably influenced by the familiarity of these artists with aboriginal Roman sarcophagi. Their masterpieces are the pulpits of the Baptistery and Cathedral of Pisa.

Contemporary with Giovanni Pisano, the Florentine painter Giotto developed a manner of figurative painting that was unprecedentedly naturalistic, iii-dimensional, lifelike and classicist, when compared with that of his contemporaries and teacher Cimabue. Giotto, whose greatest piece of work is the cycle of the Life of Christ at the Loonshit Chapel in Padua, was seen by the 16th-century biographer Giorgio Vasari as "rescuing and restoring art" from the "crude, traditional, Byzantine manner" prevalent in Italy in the 13th century.

Early on Renaissance in Italian republic, 1400–1495 [edit]

Donatello, David (1440s?) Museo Nazionale del Bargello.

Although both the Pisanos and Giotto had students and followers, the first truly Renaissance artists were not to sally in Florence until 1401 with the competition to sculpt a prepare of bronze doors of the Baptistery of Florence Cathedral, which drew entries from seven young sculptors including Brunelleschi, Donatello and the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti. Brunelleschi, about famous as the architect of the dome of Florence Cathedral and the Church building of San Lorenzo, created a number of sculptural works, including a life-sized crucifix in Santa Maria Novella, renowned for its naturalism. His studies of perspective are thought to accept influenced the painter Masaccio. Donatello became renowned equally the greatest sculptor of the Early Renaissance, his masterpieces existence his humanist and unusually erotic statue of David, one of the icons of the Florentine republic, and his great monument to Gattamelata, the start large equestrian bronze to exist created since Roman times.

The contemporary of Donatello, Masaccio, was the painterly descendant of Giotto and began the Early Renaissance in Italian painting in 1425, furthering the trend towards solidity of course and naturalism of face up and gesture that Giotto had begun a century earlier. From 1425–1428, Masaccio completed several panel paintings but is best known for the fresco cycle that he began in the Brancacci Chapel with the older artist Masolino and which had profound influence on later painters, including Michelangelo. Masaccio's developments were carried forward in the paintings of Fra Angelico, specially in his frescos at the Convent of San Marco in Florence.

The handling of the elements of perspective and low-cal in painting was of particular concern to 15th-century Florentine painters. Uccello was so obsessed with trying to achieve an appearance of perspective that, according to Giorgio Vasari, it disturbed his slumber. His solutions can exist seen in his masterpiece prepare of three paintings, the Boxing of San Romano, which is believed to have been completed past 1460. Piero della Francesca made systematic and scientific studies of both light and linear perspective, the results of which tin can exist seen in his fresco wheel of The History of the True Cross in San Francesco, Arezzo.

In Naples, the painter Antonello da Messina began using oil paints for portraits and religious paintings at a date that preceded other Italian painters, possibly most 1450. He carried this technique northward and influenced the painters of Venice. One of the most significant painters of Northern Italy was Andrea Mantegna, who decorated the interior of a room, the Camera degli Sposi for his patron Ludovico Gonzaga, setting portraits of the family and court into an illusionistic architectural space.

The terminate menstruum of the Early Renaissance in Italian art is marked, like its get-go, past a particular commission that drew artists together, this time in cooperation rather than competition. Pope Sixtus IV had rebuilt the Papal Chapel, named the Sistine Chapel in his honour, and commissioned a grouping of artists, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Domenico Ghirlandaio and Cosimo Rosselli to decorate its wall with fresco cycles depicting the Life of Christ and the Life of Moses. In the sixteen big paintings, the artists, although each working in his individual style, agreed on principles of format, and utilised the techniques of lighting, linear and atmospheric perspective, anatomy, foreshortening and characterisation that had been carried to a loftier signal in the big Florentine studios of Ghiberti, Verrocchio, Ghirlandaio and Perugino.

Early Netherlandish art, 1425–1525 [edit]

The painters of the Low Countries in this catamenia included January van Eyck, his brother Hubert van Eyck, Robert Campin, Hans Memling, Rogier van der Weyden and Hugo van der Goes. Their painting developed partly independently of Early Italian Renaissance painting, and without the influence of a deliberate and conscious striving to revive antiquity.

The fashion of painting grew directly out of medieval painting in tempera, on panels and illuminated manuscripts, and other forms such as stained drinking glass; the medium of fresco was less mutual in northern Europe. The medium used was oil paint, which had long been utilised for painting leather ceremonial shields and accoutrements considering information technology was flexible and relatively durable. The earliest Netherlandish oil paintings are meticulous and detailed like tempera paintings. The material lent itself to the depiction of tonal variations and texture, and then facilitating the observation of nature in great particular.

The Netherlandish painters did not approach the cosmos of a moving picture through a framework of linear perspective and right proportion. They maintained a medieval view of hierarchical proportion and religious symbolism, while delighting in a realistic handling of material elements, both natural and man-made. Jan van Eyck, with his brother Hubert, painted The Altarpiece of the Mystical Lamb. It is probable that Antonello da Messina became familiar with Van Eyck'south work, while in Naples or Sicily. In 1475, Hugo van der Goes' Portinari Altarpiece arrived in Florence, where information technology was to have a profound influence on many painters, most immediately Domenico Ghirlandaio, who painted an altarpiece imitating its elements.

A very significant Netherlandish painter towards the end of the flow was Hieronymus Bosch, who employed the blazon of fanciful forms that were oftentimes utilized to decorate borders and letters in illuminated manuscripts, combining plant and animal forms with architectonic ones. When taken from the context of the illumination and peopled with humans, these forms give Bosch'south paintings a surreal quality which take no parallel in the piece of work of any other Renaissance painter. His masterpiece is the triptych The Garden of Earthly Delights.

Early on Renaissance in France, 1375–1528 [edit]

The artists of France (including duchies such equally Burgundy) were frequently associated with courts, providing illuminated manuscripts and portraits for the nobility as well as devotional paintings and altarpieces. Among the almost famous were the Limbourg brothers, Flemish illuminators and creators of the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Drupe manuscript illumination. Jean Fouquet, painter of the royal court, visited Italy in 1437 and reflects the influence of Florentine painters such equally Paolo Uccello. Although best known for his portraits such as that of Charles 7 of France, Fouquet too created illuminations, and is thought to be the inventor of the portrait miniature.

There were a number of artists at this date who painted famed altarpieces, that are stylistically quite distinct from both the Italian and the Flemish. These include two enigmatic figures, Enguerrand Quarton, to whom is ascribed the Pieta of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, and Jean Hey, otherwise known as "the Principal of Moulins" afterwards his nigh famous piece of work, the Moulins Altarpiece. In these works, realism and close observation of the human figure, emotions and lighting are combined with a medieval formality, which includes gilt backgrounds.

High Renaissance in Italia, 1495–1520 [edit]

The "universal genius" Leonardo da Vinci was to further perfect the aspects of pictorial art (lighting, linear and atmospheric perspective, beefcake, foreshortening and characterisation) that had preoccupied artists of the Early on Renaissance, in a lifetime of studying and meticulously recording his observations of the natural world. His adoption of oil paint every bit his primary media meant that he could draw light and its effects on the mural and objects more naturally and with greater dramatic outcome than had always been done before, every bit demonstrated in the Mona Lisa (1503–1506). His dissection of cadavers carried forwards the understanding of skeletal and muscular anatomy, equally seen in the unfinished Saint Jerome in the Wilderness (c. 1480). His depiction of homo emotion in The Terminal Supper, completed 1495–1498, set the benchmark for religious painting.

The art of Leonardo's younger contemporary Michelangelo took a very different direction. Michelangelo in neither his painting nor his sculpture demonstrates whatever interest in the observation of any natural object except the human torso. He perfected his technique in depicting it, while in his early on twenties, by the creation of the enormous marble statue of David and the group Pietà, in the St Peter'south Basilica, Rome. He then set well-nigh an exploration of the expressive possibilities of the human anatomy. His commission by Pope Julius Two to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling resulted in the supreme masterpiece of figurative composition, which was to have profound effect on every subsequent generation of European artists.^[6] His later piece of work, The Last Judgement, painted on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel between 1534 and 1541, shows a Mannerist (also called Late Renaissance) style with generally elongated bodies which took over from the High Renaissance style betwixt 1520 and 1530.

Standing alongside Leonardo and Michelangelo as the tertiary groovy painter of the High Renaissance was the younger Raphael, who in a short lifespan painted a nifty number of life-like and engaging portraits, including those of Pope Julius Two and his successor Pope Leo Ten, and numerous portrayals of the Madonna and Christ Child, including the Sistine Madonna. His death in 1520 at age 37 is considered by many art historians to be the cease of the High Renaissance period, although some individual artists continued working in the High Renaissance way for many years thereafter.

In Northern Italy, the Loftier Renaissance is represented primarily by members of the Venetian school, especially by the latter works of Giovanni Bellini, especially religious paintings, which include several large altarpieces of a type known equally "Sacred Conversation", which show a group of saints around the enthroned Madonna. His contemporary Giorgione, who died at about the age of 32 in 1510, left a minor number of enigmatic works, including The Tempest, the subject of which has remained a matter of speculation. The primeval works of Titian date from the era of the Loftier Renaissance, including a massive altarpiece The Assumption of the Virgin which combines human being action and drama with spectacular color and atmosphere. Titian continued painting in a more often than not High Renaissance style until near the end of his career in the 1570s, although he increasingly used color and low-cal over line to define his figures.

German Renaissance art [edit]

High german Renaissance fine art falls into the broader category of the Renaissance in Northern Europe, besides known as the Northern Renaissance. Renaissance influences began to appear in German art in the 15th century, but this trend was non widespread. Gardner's Fine art Through the Ages identifies Michael Pacher, a painter and sculptor, equally the first German artist whose piece of work begins to testify Italian Renaissance influences. Co-ordinate to that source, Pacher's painting, St. Wolfgang Forces the Devil to Hold His Prayerbook (c. 1481), is Late Gothic in style, but too shows the influence of the Italian artist Mantegna.^[7]

In the 1500s, Renaissance art in Germany became more than common as, according to Gardner, "The art of northern Europe during the sixteenth century is characterized past a sudden awareness of the advances made by the Italian Renaissance and by a want to assimilate this new way as rapidly every bit possible."^[viii] Ane of the best known practitioners of High german Renaissance art was Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), whose fascination with classical ideas led him to Italy to written report art. Both Gardner and Russell recognized the importance of Dürer's contribution to German art in bringing Italian Renaissance styles and ideas to Germany.^[nine] ^[10] Russell calls this "Opening the Gothic windows of German art,"^[9] while Gardner calls it Dürer's "life mission."^[ten] Importantly, as Gardner points out, Dürer "was the first northern creative person who fully understood the basic aims of the southern Renaissance,"^[10] although his style did not always reverberate that. The same source says that Hans Holbein the Younger (1497–1543) successfully alloyed Italian ideas while also keeping "northern traditions of close realism."^[11] This is assorted with Dürer'due south trend to work in "his ain native German language mode"^[10] instead of combining German and Italian styles. Other of import artists of the German Renaissance were Matthias Grünewald, Albrecht Altdorfer and Lucas Cranach the Elder.^[12]

Artisans such as engravers became more concerned with aesthetics rather than but perfecting their crafts. Germany had master engravers, such as Martin Schongauer, who did metal engravings in the late 1400s. Gardner relates this mastery of the graphic arts to advances in printing which occurred in Germany, and says that metal engraving began to replace the woodcut during the Renaissance.^[13] However, some artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, continued to practise woodcuts. Both Gardner and Russell describe the fine quality of Dürer's woodcuts, with Russell stating in The World of Dürer that Dürer "elevated them into high works of art."^[ix]

Britain [edit]

Britain was very belatedly to develop a distinct Renaissance style and well-nigh artists of the Tudor court were imported foreigners, usually from the Low Countries, including Hans Holbein the Younger, who died in England. One exception was the portrait miniature, which artists including Nicholas Hilliard developed into a distinct genre well before it became popular in the rest of Europe. Renaissance fine art in Scotland was similarly dependent on imported artists, and largely restricted to the courtroom.

Themes and symbolism [edit]

Renaissance artists painted a broad variety of themes. Religious altarpieces, fresco cycles, and small works for private devotion were very pop. For inspiration, painters in both Italian republic and northern Europe frequently turned to Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend (1260), a highly influential source book for the lives of saints that had already had a strong influence on Medieval artists. The rebirth of classical antiquity and Renaissance humanism also resulted in many mythological and history paintings. Ovidian stories, for instance, were very popular. Decorative decoration, often used in painted architectural elements, was specially influenced past classical Roman motifs.

Techniques [edit]

The employ of proportion – The first major handling of the painting as a window into infinite appeared in the work of Giotto di Bondone, at the beginning of the 14th century. Truthful linear perspective was formalized later, by Filippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti. In improver to giving a more realistic presentation of art, information technology moved Renaissance painters into composing more paintings.
Foreshortening – The term foreshortening refers to the artistic consequence of shortening lines in a drawing and so every bit to create an illusion of depth.
Sfumato – The term sfumato was coined past Italian Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci and refers to a fine art painting technique of blurring or softening of sharp outlines by subtle and gradual blending of one tone into another through the use of thin glazes to requite the illusion of depth or three-dimensionality. This stems from the Italian word sfumare meaning to evaporate or to fade out. The Latin origin is fumare, to smoke.
Chiaroscuro – The term chiaroscuro refers to the fine art painting modeling effect of using a strong dissimilarity betwixt light and dark to requite the illusion of depth or 3-dimensionality. This comes from the Italian words meaning lite (chiaro) and dark (scuro), a technique which came into wide use in the Baroque period.

List of Renaissance artists [edit]

Italy [edit]

Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337)
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446)
Masolino (c. 1383 – c. 1447)
Donatello (c. 1386 – 1466)
Pisanello (c. 1395 – c. 1455)
Fra Angelico (c. 1395 – 1455)
Paolo Uccello (1397–1475)
Masaccio (1401–1428)
Leone Battista Alberti (1404–1472)
Filippo Lippi (c. 1406 – 1469)
Domenico Veneziano (c. 1410 – 1461)
Piero della Francesca (c. 1415 – 1492)
Andrea del Castagno (c. 1421 – 1457)
Benozzo Gozzoli (c. 1421 – 1497)
Alessio Baldovinetti (1425–1499)
Antonio del Pollaiuolo (1429 - 1498)
Antonello da Messina (c. 1430 – 1479)
Giovanni Bellini (c.1430 - 1516)
Andrea Mantegna (c. 1431 – 1506)
Andrea del Verrocchio (c. 1435 – 1488)
Giovanni Santi (1435–1494)
Carlo Crivelli (c. 1435 – c. 1495)
Donato Bramante (1444 - 1514)
Sandro Botticelli (c. 1445 – 1510)
Luca Signorelli (c. 1445 – 1523)
Biagio d'Antonio (1446–1516)
Pietro Perugino (1446–1523)
Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449–1494)
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
Pinturicchio (1454-1513)
Filippino Lippi (1457-1504)
Andrea Solari (1460–1524)
Piero di Cosimo (1462–1522)
Vittore Carpaccio (1465-1526)
Bernardino de' Conti (1465–1525)
Giorgione (c. 1473 - 1510)
Michelangelo (1475–1564)
Lorenzo Lotto (1480 - 1557)
Raphael (1483–1520)
Marco Cardisco (c. 1486 – c. 1542)
Titian (c. 1488/1490 – 1576)
Corregio (c. 1489 – 1534)
Pietro Negroni (c. 1505 – c. 1565)
Sofonisba Anguissola (c. 1532 – 1625)

Depression Countries [edit]

Hubert van Eyck (1366?–1426)
Robert Campin (c. 1380 – 1444)
Limbourg brothers (fl. 1385–1416)
Jan van Eyck (1385?–1440?)
Rogier van der Weyden (1399/1400–1464)
Jacques Daret (c. 1404 – c. 1470)
Petrus Christus (1410/1420–1472)
Dirk Bouts (1415–1475)
Hugo van der Goes (c. 1430/1440 – 1482)
Hans Memling (c. 1430 – 1494)
Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450 – 1516)
Gerard David (c. 1455 – 1523)
Geertgen tot Sint Jans (c. 1465 – c. 1495)
Quentin Matsys (1466–1530)
Jean Bellegambe (c. 1470 – 1535)
Joachim Patinir (c. 1480 – 1524)
Adriaen Isenbrant (c. 1490 – 1551)

Federal republic of germany [edit]

Hans Holbein the Elder (c. 1460 – 1524)
Matthias Grünewald (c. 1470 – 1528)
Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528)
Lucas Cranach the Elderberry (1472–1553)
Hans Burgkmair (1473–1531)
Jerg Ratgeb (c. 1480 – 1526)
Albrecht Altdorfer (c. 1480 – 1538)
Leonhard Beck (c. 1480 – 1542)
Hans Baldung (c. 1480 – 1545)
Wilhelm Stetter (1487–1552)
Barthel Bruyn the Elderberry (1493–1555)
Ambrosius Holbein (1494–1519)
Hans Holbein the Younger (c. 1497 – 1543)
Conrad Faber von Kreuznach (c. 1500 – c. 1553)
Lucas Cranach the Younger (1515–1586)

French republic [edit]

Enguerrand Quarton (c. 1410 – c. 1466)
Barthélemy d'Eyck (c. 1420 – after 1470)
Jean Fouquet (1420–1481)
Simon Marmion (c. 1425 – 1489)
Nicolas Froment (c. 1435 – c. 1486)
Jean Hey (fl. c. 1475 – c. 1505)
Jean Clouet (1480–1541)
François Clouet (c. 1510 – 1572)

Kingdom of spain and Portugal [edit]

Jaume Huguet (1412–1492)
Nuno Gonçalves (c. 1425 – c. 1491)
Bartolomé Bermejo (c. 1440 – c. 1501)
Paolo da San Leocadio (1447 – c. 1520)
Pedro Berruguete (c. 1450 – 1504)
Ayne Bru
Juan de Flandes (c. 1460 – c. 1519)
Luis de Morales (1512–1586)
Alonso Sánchez Coello (1531–1588)
El Greco (1541–1614)
Grão Vasco (1475-1542)
Gregório Lopes (1490-1550)
Francisco de Holanda (1517-1585)
Cristóvão Lopes (1516-1594)
Cristóvão de Figueiredo (?-c.1543)
Jorge Afonso (1470-1540)
António de Holanda (1480-1571)
Cristóvão de Morais

Venetian Dalmatia (modern Croatia) [edit]

Giorgio da Sebenico (c. 1410 – 1475)
Niccolò di Giovanni Fiorentino (1418–1506)
Andrea Alessi (1425–1505)
Francesco Laurana (c. 1430 – 1502)
Giovanni Dalmata (c. 1440 – c. 1514)
Nicholas of Ragusa (1460? – 1517)
Andrea Schiavone (c. 1510/1515 – 1563)

Works [edit]

Ghent Altarpiece, by Hubert and Jan van Eyck
The Arnolfini Portrait, past January van Eyck
The Werl Triptych, by Robert Campin
The Portinari Triptych, by Hugo van der Goes
The Descent from the Cross, by Rogier van der Weyden
Flagellation of Christ, by Piero della Francesca
Spring, past Sandro Botticelli
Lamentation of Christ, by Mantegna
The Last Supper, by Leonardo da Vinci
The School of Athens, past Raphael
Sistine Chapel ceiling, by Michelangelo
Equestrian Portrait of Charles 5, by Titian
Isenheim Altarpiece, by Matthias Grünewald
Melencolia I, by Albrecht Dürer
The Ambassadors, by Hans Holbein the Younger
Melun Diptych, by Jean Fouquet
Saint Vincent Panels, by Nuno Gonçalves

Major collections [edit]

National Gallery, London, Uk
Museo del Prado, Madrid, Espana
Uffizi, Florence, Italy
Louvre, Paris, France
National Gallery of Art, Washington, USA
Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, Germany
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Metropolis, Usa
Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium, Belgium, Brussels
Groeningemuseum, Bruges, Kingdom of belgium
One-time St. John's Hospital, Bruges, Belgium
Bargello, Florence, Italian republic
Château d'Écouen (National museum of the Renaissance), Écouen, France
Vatican museums, Vatican city
Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan, Italy

References [edit]

^ "Renaissance". encyclopedia.com. June 18, 2018. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
^ "What were the impacts of Renaissance on art, compages, science?". PreserveArticles.com: Preserving Your Manufactures for Eternity. 2011-09-07. Retrieved 2021-10-19 .
^ ^a ^b Frederick Hartt, A History of Italian Renaissance Art, (1970)
^ Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy, (1974)
^ Margaret Aston, The Fifteenth Century, the Prospect of Europe, (1979)
^ https://www.laetitiana.co.uk/2014/07/introduction-to-renaissance-movement.html
^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Fine art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Caryatid Jovanovich. p. 555. ISBN0-fifteen-503753-half-dozen.
^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Caryatid Jovanovich. pp. 556–557. ISBN0-15-503753-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c Russell, Francis (1967). The Earth of Dürer . Time Life Books, Time Inc. p. nine.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 561. ISBN0-15-503753-6.
^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard M (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 564. ISBN0-15-503753-half dozen.
^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard 1000 (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 557. ISBN0-15-503753-6.
^ Gardner, Helen; De la Croix, Horst; Tansey, Richard G (1975). "The Renaissance in Northern Europe". Art Through the Ages (6th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 555–556. ISBN0-15-503753-6.

External links [edit]

The Early Renaissance
"Limited Freedom", Marica Hall, Berfrois, two March 2011.

stullprideaped.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_art